It's 1789 and Europe has been through an endless number of wars.

Territory has changed hands, hundreds of thousands of people have died, and crop yields have

been bad lately.

War is bad for agriculture, for one thing, but also the weather hasn't been too cooperative.

Reformers across the Dutch states and the Habsburg Netherlands want to be more like

the new United States, while Poles are demanding that the partition of their country be undone.

And one kingdom had emerged a hero from all the overseas revolutions because of its support

for the rebels in the thirteen North American colonies.

France has stood up for liberty and democracy and fraternity--in North America, anyway.

At home, it remained an absolute monarchy, and was virtually bankrupt from all the warring.

Its countryside was full of beggars--as was much of the European countryside even as aristocrats

grew ever wealthier.

And the poor and middle-class paid virtually all the tax collected to support these ceaseless

wars.

All of which is to say that in 1789, France--the strongest and most populous country on the

continent--was in crisis.

[Intro] In 1789 Louis XVI ruled France.

He loved to hunt and tinker with mechanical objects, especially locks.

His wife Marie Antoinette was the daughter of Maria Theresa of the Habsburg Empire and

the sister of Joseph II, its current ruler.

In a world where the marriage of two powerful royal families had long been seen as key to

stability and prosperity, what could go wrong?

Marie Antoinette was a big spender who had trouble relating to the poor of which France

had many.

As bad harvests made the price of bread soar, more families couldn't afford to eat, or

else were eating bread that was cut with up to 50% sawdust.

In response to unaffordable bread, Marie-Antoinette reportedly said, “Qu'ils mangent de la brioche,”

which is a great opportunity to trot out my amazing French accent.

And also, to talk about brioche, which is in the center of the world today.

IIn English, the line is usually translated “let them eat cake,” but as you can see,

brioche isn't cake exactly.

It's just a different fancier more delicious kind of bread.

Mmm!

It's delicious.

Fluffy, eggy, quite light.

I don't understand why the peasants couldn't just eat this stuff...

Stan says I'm hopelessly out of touch, to which I say, can I have some more of that

brioche?

At any rate, France as a whole was broke.

Now, its reform-minded ministers tried to revise the tax system so that the church and

the aristocracy would have to pay at least some taxes.

But you'll recall, there was a group of appellate judges, the Parlement, who had to

register royal decrees, and they refused to register this one.

Bankers, meanwhile, refused to provide the Crown with additional loans.

Which led to a proper financial crisis.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

1.

In response to this crisis, Louis XVI was forced to summon the Estates-General

2.

—that is, a group of representatives of the clergy (the first estate),

3.

the aristocracy (second estate),

4. and ordinary people (third estate).

5.

In cities, towns, and villages across the kingdom, people met to set out their grievances

in cahiers or register books

6. for their representatives to take to this historic meeting.

7.

Meanwhile, discontent was rising as Marie-Antoinette played at being a shepherdess

8. in a pretend farm that was built for her on the grounds of Versailles

9.

so she could imbibe the air of nature and play at the work so many were forced to do.

10.

On May 5, 1789 members of the Estates-General paraded in great ceremony through Versailles

to begin deliberations.

11.

Louis XVI wrote of the events that day “Nothing happened.

Went hunting.”

12.

Which just goes to show you that history is about perspective.

13.

Members of the Third Estate, meanwhile, immediately protested that their one vote as a group would

always be beaten by the two votes of the first two estates.

14.

So members of the third estate retreated to a nearby tennis court, declaring themselves

the National Assembly

15. and claiming to represent all French people better than the Estates General did.

16.

These representatives swore (in the so-called Tennis Court Oath) that they would not disband

until they had constructed a nation of individual citizens instead of a kingdom of servile subjects.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

So, the National Assembly's moves toward enacting a reform program were backed by the

muscle of ordinary people—many of them furious about injustice and poverty.

On July 14, the people of Paris seized the Bastille fortress—a prison full of weapons

and a symbol of the monarchy's ability to imprison anyone arbitrarily.

And in the countryside peasants took over chateaux and destroyed aristocratic titles

to land and peasant services.

Terrified aristocrats met on August 4, 1789, and surrendered their privileges as feudal

lords.

The National Assembly then elaborated in a series of decrees declaring feudal society

had come to an end.

That same month the Assembly passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen—a

document that protected property, ensured trial by jury, and guaranteed free speech.

It read, in part: “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.”

And that included freedom of religion.

It's hard to overstate how radical a change that was from a France in which, just months

earlier, peasants were seen as neither free nor equal, and Catholicism was the kingdom's

official religion.

On October 5, market women from Paris marched to Versailles in the so-called Women's March

to bring the king and royal family to Paris, where they could be monitored by the people.

Although the family was unharmed, some members of the royal circle, including the queen's

best friend, were violated, murdered, and mutilated.

Their heads and genitals were displayed on pikes.

And aristocrats began fleeing the country.

Critically, the Declaration of the Rights of Man also stated that the power of the monarch

flowed not from some divinity, but from the nation.

And to that end, the Assembly proceeded to draw up a constitution, making the monarchy

a constitutional one.

then in 1790, they adopted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, ultimately confiscating church

property and mandating the election of priests by their parishioners.

And then in 1791, the royal family was like, “we should try to get out of here.”

And they tried to flee but were caught.

Meanwhile, war broke out between the revolutionary government in France and Austria and Prussia,

who were intent on crushing the revolution and putting the royals back in full control.

Partly because they, you know, had a vested interest.

Their relatives were on the French throne, but also, as a general rule, monarchs like

monarchy.

As the republic began to take shape, so did political parties.

They arranged themselves in the assembly hall so that republicans, who wanted to do away

with monarchs entirely, sat on the left and monarchists sat on the right.

An array of others grouped themselves as parties across the hall.

And from this arrangement, we got the modern idea of politicians' ideas being left, center,

or right.

The Jacobin club, a rising political party, was to the left.

But it soon broke into several factions that were on the center, left, and radical left

of the political spectrum.

Ah, politics, where the left has a right and the right has a left and they both have centers

that no one listens to.

Amid these tremendous changes, women were claiming their rightful place as citizens

to match the official expressions of equality and rights for all.

In 1791, Olympe de Gouges, author and daughter of a butcher, published the Declaration of

the Rights of Woman, stating explicitly women's equality with men.

Women participated in political clubs and successfully pushed for laws that ended men's

power over the family and also ended the practice of men getting a larger percentage of inheritances

than women.

As war advanced, women also lobbied for the right to serve in the army.

And was war ever advancing!

In 1792 the Parisian masses, threatened by the approach of foreign royal armies, took

extreme action.

They invaded the Parisian palace where the royal family lived—and forced new elections

for a National Convention.

Then in the fall of 1792, further violence produced the abolition of the French monarchy

and a call for every other kingdom to do the same: “All governments are our enemies,

all people our friends,” the Edict of Fraternity read.

Once the Convention had declared France a republic, in January 1793, Louis XVI was executed

after a narrow vote.

A new instrument of execution called the guillotine carried out what would soon become a bloodbath

against many supposed enemies of the people.

Because it killed so swiftly and allegedly painlessly, the guillotine was considered

an enlightened form of execution.

And that brings us to Maximilien Robespierre.

With the king dead and the church legally abandoned, the Jacobins under Robespierre's

leadership, committed the nation to a so-called reign of virtue and complete obedience to

Rousseau's idea of the general will of the people—despite all those freedoms agreed

upon in the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

The Jacobins transformed culture: festivals celebrated patriotic virtue; churches were

turned into temples of reason; dishware carried patriotic mottos; a new “rational” calendar

was created; and clothing was in red, white, and blue—the colors of the revolutionary

flag.

Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, with its Orwellian name and Orwellian mission,

presided over the “Terror” in which people from all classes and walks of life—at least

40,000 of them—were executed in the name of supporting the nation through purges of

enemies of the general will.

Among these in the autumn of 1793 were Queen Marie-Antoinette, Olympe de Gouges, former

mistresses of Louis XVI's grandfather, and other well-known women.