may find what I'm about to tell you

of practical value,

let me ask you please to raise your hands:

Who here is either over 65 years old

or hopes to live past age 65

or has parents or grandparents who did live

or have lived past 65,

raise your hands please. (Laughter)

Okay. You are the people to whom my talk

will be of practical value. (Laughter)

The rest of you

won't find my talk personally relevant,

but I think that you will still find the subject

fascinating.

I'm going to talk about growing older

in traditional societies.

This subject constitutes just one chapter

of my latest book, which compares

traditional, small, tribal societies

with our large, modern societies,

with respect to many topics

such as bringing up children,

growing older, health, dealing with danger,

settling disputes, religion

and speaking more than one language.

Those tribal societies, which constituted

all human societies for most of human history,

are far more diverse than are our modern,

recent, big societies.

All big societies that have governments,

and where most people are strangers to each other,

are inevitably similar to each other

and different from tribal societies.

Tribes constitute thousands of natural experiments

in how to run a human society.

They constitute experiments from which we ourselves

may be able to learn.

Tribal societies shouldn't be scorned

as primitive and miserable,

but also they shouldn't be romanticized

as happy and peaceful.

When we learn of tribal practices,

some of them will horrify us,

but there are other tribal practices which,

when we hear about them,

we may admire and envy

and wonder whether we could adopt those practices

ourselves.

Most old people in the U.S. end up living

separately from their children

and from most of their friends

of their earlier years,

and often they live in separate retirements homes for the elderly,

whereas in traditional societies,

older people instead live out their lives

among their children, their other relatives,

and their lifelong friends.

Nevertheless, the treatment of the elderly

varies enormously among traditional societies,

from much worse to much better

than in our modern societies.

At the worst extreme, many traditional societies

get rid of their elderly

in one of four increasingly direct ways:

by neglecting their elderly

and not feeding or cleaning them until they die,

or by abandoning them when the group moves,

or by encouraging older people to commit suicide,

or by killing older people.

In which tribal societies do children

abandon or kill their parents?

It happens mainly under two conditions.

One is in nomadic, hunter-gather societies

that often shift camp

and that are physically incapable

of transporting old people who can't walk

when the able-bodied younger people already

have to carry their young children

and all their physical possessions.

The other condition is in societies

living in marginal or fluctuating environments,

such as the Arctic or deserts,

where there are periodic food shortages,

and occasionally there just isn't enough food

to keep everyone alive.

Whatever food is available has to be reserved

for able-bodied adults and for children.

To us Americans, it sounds horrible

to think of abandoning or killing

your own sick wife or husband

or elderly mother or father,

but what could those traditional societies

do differently?

They face a cruel situation of no choice.

Their old people had to do it to their own parents,

and the old people know

what now is going to happen to them.

At the opposite extreme

in treatment of the elderly, the happy extreme,

are the New Guinea farming societies

where I've been doing my fieldwork for the past 50 years,

and most other sedentary traditional societies

around the world.

In those societies, older people are cared for.

They are fed. They remain valuable.

And they continue to live in the same hut

or else in a nearby hut near their children,

relatives and lifelong friends.

There are two main sets of reasons for this variation

among societies in their treatment

of old people.

The variation depends especially

on the usefulness of old people

and on the society's values.

First, as regards usefulness,

older people continue to perform useful services.

One use of older people in traditional societies

is that they often are still effective

at producing food.

Another traditional usefulness of older people

is that they are capable of babysitting

their grandchildren,

thereby freeing up their own adult children,

the parents of those grandchildren,

to go hunting and gathering food for the grandchildren.

Still another traditional value of older people

is in making tools, weapons, baskets,

pots and textiles.

In fact, they're usually the people who are best at it.

Older people usually are the leaders

of traditional societies,

and the people most knowledgeable about politics,

medicine, religion, songs and dances.

Finally, older people in traditional societies

have a huge significance that would never occur

to us in our modern, literate societies,

where our sources of information are books

and the Internet.

In contrast, in traditional societies without writing,

older people are the repositories of information.

It's their knowledge that spells the difference

between survival and death for their whole society

in a time of crisis caused by rare events

for which only the oldest people alive

have had experience.

Those, then, are the ways in which older people

are useful in traditional societies.

Their usefulness varies and contributes

to variation in the society's treatment

of the elderly.

The other set of reasons for variation

in the treatment of the elderly is

the society's cultural values.

For example, there's particular emphasis

on respect for the elderly in East Asia,

associated with Confucius' doctrine

of filial piety, which means obedience,

respect and support for elderly parents.

Cultural values that emphasize respect for older people

contrast with the low status of the elderly

in the U.S.

Older Americans are at a big disadvantage

in job applications.

They're at a big disadvantage in hospitals.

Our hospitals have an explicit policy

called age-based allocation of healthcare resources.

That sinister expression means that

if hospital resources are limited,

for example if only one donor heart

becomes available for transplant,

or if a surgeon has time to operate

on only a certain number of patients,

American hospitals have an explicit policy

of giving preference to younger patients

over older patients

on the grounds that younger patients are considered

more valuable to society

because they have more years of life ahead of them,