So, there are many candidates for most important year in European history--1492, when permanent

links between Afroeurasia and the Americas first formed; 1688, when the Glorious Revolution

gave Europe an example of constitutional governments; 1789, when the French Revolution directly

challenged monarchy; 1992, when the European Union was founded.

But you can sure make a case for 1848, when revolutions swept across Europe in the wake

of the upheavals and protest we saw in the last episode.

People in cities were suffering from economic dislocation, many having come from farms where

new machinery had made their labor unnecessary.

And urban artisans were also under threat because industrialization was automating some

of their jobs, Systems of government that had functioned

effectively for agrarian, subsistence economies were proving ineffective for this brave new

world.

In short, automation was changing work and governments weren't functioning particularly

well.

The more things change . . . INTRO

By the end of 1848, France, the Austrian Empire, Denmark, Hungary, the Italian States, and

even Poland would be enmeshed in the greatest wave of revolutions Europe has ever seen.

Many Europeans were experiencing the “Hungry Forties,” caused once again by bad harvests

and especially in Ireland the potato blight, a mold that devastated potato crops in Ireland

and elsewhere in Europe.

The problem was made worse by several aspects of what might be called economic modernity—that

is, standardization, one-crop agriculture, and more efficient wholesaling of food.

In terms of standardization and one-crop agriculture, traditionally Peru had at least 4-5,000 types

of potatoes.

So if one type contracted a specific blight, there were still several thousand other varieties

that might be safe.

But Europe, followed by the United States, was gradually turning toward farms that focused

on a single crop, and often a single strain of a crop, for efficiency.

Increasingly, imperialists forced this standardization and single crop farming on other parts of

the world, raising the chances for disaster.

Because of the single strain of potato, blight devastated entire crops.

And this resulted in death from starvation and diseases that invaded the weakened bodies

of at least a million Irish farmers and their families.

Another million or more emigrated, some to England and others to the United States and

Canada (where in both cases, by the way, there were no laws creating a distinction between

legal and illegal immigration.

People simply moved in.).

And as scarcity deepened in 1846 and 1847, Britain's liberal Whig government stuck

to its belief in laissez-faire, meaning that the government should let events play themselves

out, and therefore offered the Irish no help at all.

The system of usually English landlords requiring payment from Irish peasants to work farmland

also worsened the crisis--like, throughout the Irish famine, huge amounts of food were

exported from Ireland to England.

Even today, the population of Ireland has not recovered from the famine--some eight

million people lived on the island in 1840; today, around 6.6 million do.

Meanwhile, on the continent, food riots became common and threats to merchants, and storekeepers,

and bakers, and government officials became more menacing and direct.

One warning read: “If the grain merchants do not cease to take away grains.

. . we will go to your homes and cut your throats and those of the three bakers. . . and

burn the whole place down.”

So, yeah, it was pretty tense--as things tend to be when people are starving.

Also, amid all this deprivation and death, anti-slavery and pro-freedom ideas were circulating.

Between 1833-1838, Britain freed slaves across the empire, except in India.

A system of slave-like indentured labor did spring up, but the rhetoric in Europe at least,

was one of emancipation.

In eastern Europe, Moldavia and Wallachia began freeing several hundred thousand enslaved

Roma in 1843.

Later, in 1848, France also re-emancipated slaves after their re-enslavement under Napoleon.

These events were accompanied by popular abolitionism, and uprisings, and the development of a language

of freedom, especially freedom from governmental and structural oppression.

And that's really important, because in some ways, its only when we have language

for ideas that we're able to share them and talk about them.

And so, developing a language around freedoms, and ideas about human rights allowed us to

share those ideas.

On the cultural front, women such as French novelist George Sand (which was a pseudonym)

and the English Bronte sisters --pictured behind me, looking translucent as always--published

best-selling novels that addressed the persecution of women.

Sand dressed in men's clothes to get cheaper seats at the theater and for a while led a

scandal-ridden life.

The Brontes did quite the opposite, but they still shocked people with their portrayal

of women as mad or crazed in domestic confinement.

Across Europe, women reformers actively addressed the disproportionate poverty of women, which

intensified as price inflation for food made it harder to feed families in the Hungry Forties.

Many working women also became more politically active, demonstrating in front of city halls

because their meager salaries no longer sufficed to buy high-priced bread.

Hey, so quick question about the Bronte sisters painting behind me.

Who is this spectral figure in the middle who has been erased from the painting?

Is that their weird brother who was an opiate addict?

What was his name?

Bromwell?

Stan says his name was Branwell.

which might be even worse.

Update!

We just found out that Branwell Bronte painted that painting, and he painted himself in with

his sisters, but then he painted himself out, which is so sad!

Oh!

The self-hatred!

Now I feel really bad making fun of you, person who's been dead for 150 years.

OK, let's move on.

So, when we last visited Italy, there was no such thing as Italy.

Its territory was parceled out among the Spanish Bourbons to the south, the Austrian Habsburgs

to the north, and the papacy in the center, among several other stakeholders.

But when audiences at the operas of composer Giuseppe Verdi heard his rousing choruses

celebrating freedom and triumph over adversity, they rose to their feet cheering, and made

Verdi a symbol of a unified Italy free from foreign domination.

And in the fall of 1847, women in Messina Sicily did more than cheer; they tore down

royal insignia and in January 1848 they took to the streets, beginning a brief revolution

that took place in many parts of the peninsula.

These women supported Giuseppe Mazzini, who wanted national unification and a republican

form of government.

Others favored a government headed by the pope, and still others wanted a monarchy.

In the end, this disunity allowed for the revolutions to be defeated as Austrians, French,

and other military forces were sent in to stop it.

In fact, disunity of revolutions leading to failure will become something of a theme.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

1.

In February 1848, myriad interests came together to spark revolution in Paris and then in other

French cities.

2.

Upper-class reformers objected to the cronyism, limited voting rights, and censorship.

3.

But in contrast, the prime minister, historian François Guizot, thought Louis-Philippe's

government was just right.

4.

The crowds sent him and the king into exile.

5.

Those crowds were backed by the upper-class reformers, but they were fueled by discontented

workers, the unemployed, and struggling artisans

6. —all affected by rising food prices as well as uncertain conditions of employment.

7.

A socialist different from the ones we've already talked about, Louis Blanc, was attuned

to the needs of workers and the poor in Paris.

8.

He convinced the new provisional government to set up national workshops to create jobs

for unemployed men.

9.

Women successfully demanded that workshops be established for them too and unsuccessfully

nominated George Sand—“male by virtue of virility, female by divine intuition”--as

a representative to the National Assembly.”

10.

As spring progressed, a new national assembly, composed of less than ten percent workers,

11.

shut down the workshops and formed a new national police force composed of men from the countryside,

12. who had little patience for city people and their city problems.

13.

In June, tens of thousands of workers rose up and fought the national police for several

days,

14. until the bodies were piled high and the workers defeated.

15.

Now a republic, France held elections based on universal male suffrage,

16. which the nephew of Napoleon, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, won handily,

17.

due to the support of peasants in the countryside.

18.

Lest you think the rural-urban divide is anything new.

Thanks Thought Bubble.

So, just as these revolutions started, a new socialist duo, German lawyer and journalist

Karl Marx and Manchester textile mill owner Friedrich Engels, issued The Communist Manifesto.

Its famous opening—"A spectre is haunting Europe—the spectre of communism” used

the word communism instead of socialism based on the idea that society would soon revert

to a traditional “community” of like-minded people.

Marx and Engels believed that class struggle was going to erupt and wash away upper-class

oppression, and that the proletariat would seize the means of production--that is, factories

and land and everything else would be shared by everyone, rather than owned by the few.

And for the moment, that was pretty much it for “Marxist” socialism.

But over the next half century, however, it would, of course, take a firmer theoretical

shape and infuse workers' programs for change across the globe, and become tremendously

influential.

And while initially, few people paid attention to the Marxist ideas of class struggle, but

some kind of struggle was certainly happening: The revolutions erupting across central and

eastern Europe featured--depending on who you were--calls for the creation of constitutionally

directed government structures, an end to serf-like oppression and censorship, restoration

of aristocratic privileges, and yes, even democracy.

In short, people wanted more power, and also greater rights and protection of those rights.

And of course, then as now, ideas were not limited by borders.

Like, news of the revolution in France sent Berlin's activists into the streets, pushing